Causes of Material Failure

Causes of Material Failure Safety, reducing weight and maintenance costs of structural components, have always been a target in structural design, particularly where lighter structures result in higher load carrying capacity in industrial projects (Li et al. 2003). Since the high strength steel (HSS) is susceptible to weld defects, specifically in structures subjected to alternating stresses, the bolted connections are used as an effective and versatile joining technique in a variety of structures compared to welded equivalents (Jimà ©nez-Peà ±a et al. 2016). In this respect, various authors have investigated the performance of bolted joints under static loading condition. Despite this, the behavior of bolted joints under cyclic loading is still not well documented and fully understood (Mà ­nguez and Vogwell 2006). A deep concern that engineers have regarding the serviceability of commercial structures is the detrimental failure resulting from metal fatigue. As a matter of fact, the design philosophies have changed over recent years in a way that static strength has been replaced by fatigue life, durability and damage tolerance (Mà ­nguez and Vogwell 2006). Design rules for bolted connections are available in Canadian and American standards in conjunction with extensions for fatigue design considerations. Material failure happens in several forms, such as wear, corrosion, deformation, and fracture. When a component is subjected to a cyclic loading and results in the separation of the component into two or more pieces, this is plain fatigue or conventional fatigue. On the other hand, fatigue failure might occur due to a phenomenon known as fretting fatigue (Hà ¤mà ¤là ¤inen and Bjà ¶rk 2015). For example, one of the bolts that connects the bottom bracket to the support broke was fractured due to fretting fatigue and another was failed because of plain fatigue during the round four of accelerated fatigue test under 113 kN at 2 Hz of fatigue as shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. Therefore, it proves why an extensive research should be undertaken to investigate the precise mechanism of fretting fatigue in bolted connections. Fretting can occur when a pair of structural components are in contact under a normal load while cyclic tangential stress and relative displacement are applied alongside the contact surface. The phenomenon of fretting has been recognised initially as a surface damage phenomenon, what today are called fretting wear. During fretting the fatigue strength decreases to less than one-third of that without fretting (Hattori et al. 2011). This kind of fatigue can be seen widely in bolted and riveted connections. The fatigue life performance of bolted joints depends on several factors, such as size of the bolts, the number and arrangement of used bolts, the level of pretension or torque tightening applied to the bolts, the material plate thickness and surface roughness. Understanding in what way all these factors affect the fatigue life of a joint is fairly complex and has not been thoroughly investigated (Mà ­nguez and Vogwell 2006). The primary objectives of this literature review are (1) to review a comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms lead to fretting fatigue failure; (2) to determine the factors which influence the fatigue strength of bolted joints; (3) to indicate predictor tools used in order to estimate the fatigue lifetime of bolted joints; (4) to propose different approaches to address the aforementioned objectives. Fig. 1: Plain fatigue in bolt shank and fretting fatigue in bottom surface of bolt head Fig. 2: Plain fatigue Bolted connections are classified on basis of the mechanism in which the forces are transferred. When members are not pressed together by torque tightened bolts, the joint members can move freely (bearing-type bolted connection); thus, a large portion of load is transferred from bolt to the edge of plates as shown in Fig. 3. Elongation of the holes due to the stress transmitted through the bolts into the members might occur, if the stress levels within the hole are adequately high to cause plastic deformation. In this case, the major failure modes for a joint subjected to shear loading would be as shown in Fig. 4. On the other hand, when the plate members are compressed together by application of tightening torque on the bolts, the members Fig. 3: A bearing joint, with the bolt acting as a shear pin slippage could be prevented; therefor, the friction in contact interface transfers loads directly, instead of transmitting through the bolt to the plates hole. In this way, the connections benefit greatly with respect to the failure modes presented in Fig. 4, because the stress concentrations caused by the bearing of the bolts at the edge of plates hole will be lowered significantly (friction-type bolted connection). Fig. 5 illustrates the behavior of a friction-type joint under static loading in shear. The joint deforms elastically until the load reaches the critical value. At region (2) the joint begins to slip and it continues until the bolts start bearing on bolt holes. Elastic deformation happens again in region (3), until the yielding of plates or bolts occurs in form of plastic deformation in region (4). Eventually, joint will be failed at point (5) (Mà ­nguez and Vogwell 2006). Fig. 4: Failure modes for joints loaded in shear Fig. 5: Behavior of a joint under increasing loading The phenomenon of plain fatigue refers to the behavior of materials under the action of repeated stress and strain which distinguishes it from their behavior under monotonic or static stresses or strains. The plain fatigue is defined more precisely by the process in which the progressive localized permanent structural changes occur in a material subjected to conditions that produce fluctuating stresses and strains at some points and that culminate in cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient number of fluctuations. A plain fatigue failure is often very sudden, with no obvious warning; however, the mechanism might have been operating from the beginning of the components usage. Fig. 6: Crack growth path in sheet (a) single shear (b) double shear Fig. 6 shows fatigue crack initiation and propagation schematically. At short crack length where crack tip plastic zones are small, the crack path is usually flat. As crack grows, the crack tip plastic zone increases in size and the crack plane can turn to 45 ° shear or slant mode. This can be either single shear as shown in Fig. 6(a) or double shear as shown in Fig. 6(b). The aspects of plain fatigue fracture can be summarized as follows: The entire fatigue process involves the nucleation and growth of a crack or cracks to final fracture. The plain fatigue crack at fracture can be very small or very large, occupying less than 1 percent of the fracture up to almost 100 percent. The plain fatigue crack region can be distinguished from final fracture region by beach marks, smoothness, and corrosion, However, there are many exceptions. Microscopic plain fatigue cracks often grow in the plain of maximum tensile stress. However, for multiaxial loading, macroscopic fatigue cracks have also been observed on the plane of maximum shear (Stephens et al. 2000). It is one century since the problem of fretting first has undergone scientific investigation. Fretting was recorded first by Eden, Rose and Cunningham in 1911, who observed a red rust in the grips of fatigue machines by which they were testing steel specimens. The removal of the specimens was encumbered by the rust and its formation was mainly attributed to the varying stress between specimens and grips. This phenomenon was experimentally investigated first via Tomlinson in 1927, and coined the term fretting wear by which name it is generally known today (Scott 2013). Intensive study of the fretting process and mechanism has been undertaken during the 1950s and 1960s. Various theories regarding the nature of fretting have been summarized by Hurricks and then published in 1970. In 1974 Golego et al. recapitulated the results of experimental and analytical investigations conducted in the Soviet Union and other countries (Kovalevskii 1981). Based on these meticulous and intensive investigations, it appeared that the problem of fretting fatigue has adequately been solved, and it is of least interest. At the end of the 1930s and the beginning of 1940s fretting was observed in a new form, as a rapid lowering of the fatigue strength of metals. Warlow-Davis was the first scholar who studied the effect of fretting corrosion on fatigue life. Numerous investigations regarding this complicated phenomenon have been carried out subsequently, and interesting and informative results were obtained on basis of empirical and factual observations. Fretting fatigue has generally been considered in terms of the contribution of fretting to the fatigue strength of material. The recognition and interpretation of mechanism of fretting fatigue by means of this approach is more difficult. It thus appears more reasonable to attempt to postulate the mechanism of fretting fatigue on basis of a combination of the basic theory of fretting wear and t he fatigue failure of metals (Kovalevskii 1981). Fretting maybe defined as surface damage caused by low amplitude oscillatory sliding between two contacting surfaces. Fretting fatigue and fretting wear lie within this broad definition. Fretting is divided into two categories: fretting wear and fretting fatigue. The removal of material from contacting surfaces through fretting action is called fretting wear, whereas fretting fatigue is the reduction in fatigue life due to fretting surface damage (Bill 1983). Both types often occur within the same contact, but in different areas. Partial slip region is the area where contact pressure caused by normal force is high, while displacement amplitude caused by alternating tangential force is relatively small. In these areas, possibly fretting occurs as fatigue. On the other hand, those areas of the contact where the displacement amplitude is somewhat large compared to contact pressure are called gross slipping regime. In these areas fretting happens as fretting wear. There is another regime between these two regimes in a way that both mechanisms overlap, mixed fretting regime. Running condition fretting map is a useful tools (RCFM) used to present these regimes and the effect of those in the specimen failure can be translated into a material response fretting map (MRFM). Fig. 7 shows the schematic illustration of these maps (Hà ¤mà ¤là ¤inen and Bjà ¶rk 2015). Fig. 7: Schematic illustrations of (a) running condition fretting map (b) material response fretting map Fretting fatigue is a complicated tribological behavior of components which are in contact together having a small relative oscillatory motion. Due to high stress gradients generated at interface of connected surface caused by fretting, the fatigue lifetime of materials is reduced considerably compered to plain fatigue (Hojjati-Talemi et al. 2013). Fretting often occurs in structures subjected to oscillating tangential loads with low-amplitude and high frequency vibrations. Since fretting happens in counterpart surfaces, where crack initiation and crack propagation is hidden, and there is no easy access for inspection, crack detection is often impossible; hence, it is a particularly dangerous phenomenon. Sometimes the development of fretting damage is not detected until critical fracture or even catastrophic failure is occurred (Hoeppner 2006). Consequently, fretting fatigue heightens a serious concern for industrial structures, and analytical and numerical techniques for prediction of fretting fatigue are much in demand. Fig. 8 illustrates an example of failure due to fretting. Fig. 8: Typical critical locations for fretting fatigue crack initiations in (a) bolted flange and (b) riveted panels 4.1 Fretting wear and fretting fatigue-How are they related? The extent to which fretting wear correlates fretting fatigue is not fully cleared. The surface damage and contact stress distribution are similar in fretting fatigue and fretting wear for a given set of contact conditions. The remarkable feature which is evident in fretting fatigue, while is not for fretting wear necessarily, is an alternating bulk stress in one of the contact bodies. Furthermore, the edges of contact area or near slip/nonslip interfaces are the spots where fretting fatigue occurs consistently. The sequence of crack initiation and propagation in fretting problems involving fretting wear or fretting fatigue is important, because it generally causes microspalling in the former case and fatigue failure in the later (Bill 1983). Fig. 9 presents the loading conditions for a typical fretting contact. The significant feature which distinguishes fretting from gross sliding wear is the formation of a partial slip zone within the contact area when the tangential force is less that the frictional force. Eq. 1 The small displacement amplitude traps the wear debris and prevents those from existing contact zone. Different combinations of normal load and displacement lead to different forms of damage mechanism. Another comprehensive fretting maps proposed by Vingsbo in 1988 is plotted schematically in Fig. 10. The area is divided into various regimes and the dominant damage mechanism is specified in each zone as following: Fig. 9: Fretting contact and loading Partial slip regime or Stick regime: Although some slip occurs by application of tangential loading, most of the contact zone remains in stick. Fretting fatigue is the dominant mode of failure in this area; however, some wear occurs even when reciprocating motions are as small as 0.25  µm. Mixed stick and slip regime or mixed fretting regime: This regime is categorized by transition of the fretting contact from partial slip to the gross sliding. The dominant mode depends on whether the fatigue cracks grow fast enough to avoid removal by wear. Gross slip regime or gross sliding regime: Slip exists throughout the contact in this regime. The excessive volume of debris produced by fretting cycle, would prevent crack from propagating. Although the slip happens all around the contact, the debris formed during fretting cycle would trapped within contact area. This is a fundamental characteristic which distinguishes this regime from reciprocating sliding phenomenon. Reciprocating sliding: Once the amplitude meets a critical level, the wear mechanism will be similar to unidirectional sliding. The remarkable feature of reciprocal sliding wear is that for different amplitudes within reciprocal sliding, wear volumes is almost being kept constant, whereas the production of oxidized debris and a wear coefficient would increase rapidly by the increase of amplitude of motion (Patil 2010). Fig. 10: Typical fretting map for Hertzian contact Although, it is very difficult to establish a precisely distinct line of demarcation between fretting wear and reciprocal sliding wear, some literatures suggest that the critical amplitude of slippage in which the occurrence of reciprocating sliding wear will be imminent. Due to complexity of fretting phenomenon, different refrences presented different transition values for different materials. Vingsbo and Soderberg in 1988 as well as Ohmae and Tsukizoe in 1974 suggested the transition value lies at 300  µm, Toth suggested 50  µm, while Lewis and Didsbury concluded transition value equal to 70  µm (Chen and Zhou 2001).

Evaluate the regulation of care provision for looked after children and young people Essay

The organisation that support carers and who regulates them include: The General Social Care Council (GSCC) is responsible for the registration of all people who work in social services in England and for regulating their education and training. This includes those working with adults and with children. Local Authority Children’s Services: Ofsted are responsible for the inspection of local authority arrangements, for the protection of the children within them. These unannounced inspections look at how well the local authority and its partners identifies, helps and protects children in the local authority area, and safeguards the organisations that are responsible for children in vulnerable positions or may need extra looking after, for example children in foster care. The Care quality commission (CQC) deals with the essential standards to make sure quality and safety is taken into account. This includes places that care is provided such as the District general hospital and car e homes. The CQC has the authority to take action on behalf of people who use services that may be unsatisfactory. This can only take action if there is reason to think that anyone’s basic rights or safety are not being met. The CQC can make particular actions in reaction to risks seen as serious. For example, the CQC can request that a care home or hospital is closed until the provider reaches the safety requirements, otherwise suspension will go forward. The CQC can take a service off the register without question when necessary. Third section organisations are also in place for the protection of children; these can be charity organisations which receive both public and private funding. These organisations include: Barnados- This is a charity which helps to support: vulnerable children, children’s families, communities and young carers. Their job is to prevent as much child poverty, child abuse and child sexual abuse from happening. They campaign for the rights of children and provide a range of support including: counselling, fostering, adoption, training and educational services. For more than 100, 00 children and young people and their families, they also help asylum seeking children. It is one of the biggest children’s charities in the UK and raises money through high streets stores, local retail shops and second hand stores as well as an online shop.  NSPCC- Their â€Å"aim is to end cruelty to children in the U K.† The NSPCC helps children at risk, by helping those who are the subjects of: neglect, physical abuse and sexual abuse. They also help children under one, looked after children. To help end cruelty to children and young people in the UK, they create and deliver services that will be capable for protecting children and young people. They provide support and advice for adults and professionals if they are concerned about a child. They work with organisations to make sure that they will effectively achieve protection of children and young people and campaign for changes to legislation for the protection and rights of every individual child. Childline is a service that children and young people can contact for free if they are ever in need of talking to someone confidentially about general issues and problems, big or small. If a child is worried, scared, upset or just in need of talking to someone they can contact Childline and someone can provide information and support where they can call free, have a 1-2-1 chat online on an instant chat service, send emails, message on the Childline message boards or Ask Sam. â€Å"Whenever children need us, Childline will be there for them- 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, and 365 days per year.† Private Providers are put in place for the care of children such as: private nurseries that provide day care for the carers of children, where they pay for them to be looked after. The Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) is part of the governments’ wider scheme. It is laid out in the Children’s Plan and Every Child Matters, which gives every child a chance to start develop ing early on in life. Every nursery that is registered in England is inspected by CQC against the EYFS.

Hostel Management Essay

ABSTRACT Hostel management by manual way is tedious process, since it involves work load and time consumption. In this system, we can easily manage the hostel details, room details, student records, mess expenditure, mess bill calculation, easy way of room allocation and hostel attendance. The main feature of this project is easy to allocate for the student and also easy to calculate mess bill. This project is carried out using Visual Basic as front end and oracle as back end. TABLE OF CONTENTS |CHAPTER NO |CONTENTS |PAGE NO | | |ABSTRACT | | | |LIST OF FIGURES | | |1. |INTRODUCTION | | | |1.1.TO THE PROBLEM | | | |1.2.TO THE SOFTWARE TOOL | | |2. |PROBLEM DEFINITION | | |3. |METHODLOGY | | |4. |SYSTEM ENVIRONMENTS | | | |4.1.HORDWARE REQUIREMENTS | | | |4.2.SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS | | |5. |FUNCTIIONAL REQUIREMENTS | | |6. |REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS | | | |6.1.USECASE DIAGRAM | | | |6.2.CLASS DIAGRAM | | |7. |DESIGNS | | | |7.1.SEQUENCE DIAGRAM | | | |7.2.COLLABRATION DIAGRAM | | | |7.3.STATE DIAGRAM | | | |7.4.ACTIVITY DIAGRAM | | LIST OF TABLES CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1. TO THE PROBLEM Hostel management gives on idea about how the students details, room allocation, mess expenditure are maintained in the particular concern. The hostel management system also includes some special features. The administration has the unique identity for each members as well as students details. The stock management has also held by mess expenditure, the mess expenditure that used to calculate the mess bills of each of the students. The modules of this project are student details, attendance details, room details, mess modules. Visual Basic6.0 is used as the front end tool and Oracle is used as a backend tool. Visual Basic is one of the driven programming languages. The application wizards, menu editor and data reports etc is very much useful for creating very good professional software. 1.2. TO THE SOFTWARE TOOL The â€Å"visual† part refers to the method used to create the graphical user interface (GUI). Rather than writing numerous lines of code to describe the appearance and location of interface elements, you simply drag and drop pre-built objects into place on screen. If you’ve ever used a drawing program such as paint, you already have most of the skills necessary to create an effective user interface. It revolves around ready-made objects and it is event-driven that is all the activities in a program are triggered by one event or another. Each object has its own properties, determining its position, size, color, appearance and nature of its text and much more. Each object also has its own event-handling procedures. Visual basic knows what a button is and how it works? It also works how to handle images, menus, dialog boxes, drive and directory list and much else. The programmer does not have to write code to trap these events the system does that automatically because th e program code runs in response to events. The flow of execution is not as fixed in a traditional program. Operations do not have to follow a set of sequence and can be easily interrupted, suspended or abandoned. The process of program design reflects the nature of the system. You begin by the screen layout events and then any necessary code to co-ordinate the whole program. Overall Diagram: USE CASE DIAGRAM: Use case diagram is a diagram that shows the interaction between user and system to capture the user’s goals. [pic] CLASS DIAGRAM: Class diagram is a collection of static elements such as classes and their relationships connected as a graph to each other. [pic] Sequence Diagram: Sequence diagram shows an interaction arranged in a time sequence . it is an alternate way to understand the overall flow of the control of the system program. [pic] Collaboration Diagram: [pic] State Diagram: State diagram are a familiar technique to describe the behaviour of a system. They describe all of the possible states that a particular object can get into and hoe the objects state changes as a result of events that reach the object. [pic] Activity Diagram: It describes the sequence of activity it support for the conditional and parallel behaviour . It is a variant of a state diagram in which most of the states are activity states. [pic] METHODOLOGY It contains four modules in it. They are given below †¢ Student details †¢ Attendance details †¢ Room details †¢ Mess modules Students details: This module consists of the details of the student such as roll number, name, date of birth, address, phone number, year, degree, room no, department name nad etc. here the details are entered and are updated. USE CASE DIAGRAM: Use case diagram is a diagram that shows the interaction between user and system to capture the user’s goals. [pic] CLASS DIAGRAM: Class diagram is a collection of static elements such as classes and their relationships connected as a graph to each other. [pic] Sequence Diagram: Sequence diagram shows an interaction arranged in a time sequence . it is an alternate way to understand the overall flow of the control of the system program. [pic] Collabration Diagram: [pic] State Diagram: State diagram are a familiar technique to describe the behaviour of a system. They describe all of the possible states that a particular object can get into and hoe the objects state changes as a result of events that reach the object. [pic] Activity Diagram: It describes the sequence of activity it support for the conditional and parallel behaviour . It is a variant of a state diagram in which most of the states are activity states. [pic] Attendance details: In this module,attendance details are maintained. Hence the upto date attendance of the each students are maintained. USE CASE DIAGRAM: Use case diagram is a diagram that shows the interaction between user and system to capture the user’s goals. [pic] CLASS DIAGRAM: Class diagram is a collection of static elements such as classes and their relationships connected as a graph to each other. [pic] Sequence Diagram: Sequence diagram shows an interaction arranged in a time sequence . it is an alternate way to understand the overall flow of the control of the system program. [pic] Collabration Diagram: [pic] State Diagram: State diagram are a familiar technique to describe the behaviour of a system. They describe all of the possible states that a particular object can get into and hoe the objects state changes as a result of events that reach the object. [pic] Activity diagram: It describes the sequence of activity it support for the conditional and parallel behaviour . It is a variant of a state diagram in which most of the states are activity states. [pic] Room details: In this module, the room number for the hostel student is allocated and the details of the each students are maintained and updated regularly. USE CASE DIAGRAM: Use case diagram is a diagram that shows the interaction between user and system to capture the user’s goals. [pic] CLASS DIAGRAM: Class diagram is a collection of static elements such as classes and their relationships connected as a graph to each other. [pic] Sequence Diagram: Sequence diagram shows an interaction arranged in a time sequence . it is an alternate way to understand the overall flow of the control of the system program. [pic] Collabration Diagram: [pic] State Diagram: State diagram are a familiar technique to describe the behaviour of a system. They describe all of the possible states that a particular object can get into and hoe the objects state changes as a result of events that reach the object. [pic] Activity Diagram: It describes the sequence of activity it support for the conditional and parallel behaviour . It is a variant of a state diagram in which most of the states are activity states. [pic] Mess Modules: In this module, the mess item expenditure for each student in the hostel is calculated for each month and the mess bill for each student in calculated and displayed. USE CASE DIAGRAM: Use case diagram is a diagram that shows the interaction between user and system to capture the user’s goals. [pic] CLASS DIAGRAM: Class diagram is a collection of static elements such as classes and their relationships connected as a graph to each other. [pic] Sequence Diagram: Sequence diagram shows an interaction arranged in a time sequence . it is an alternate way to understand the overall flow of the control of the system program. [pic] Collabration Diagram: [pic] State Diagram: State diagram are a familiar technique to describe the behaviour of a system. They describe all of the possible states that a particular object can get into and hoe the objects state changes as a result of events that reach the object. [pic] Activity Diagram: It describes the sequence of activity it support for the conditional and parallel behaviour . It is a variant of a state diagram in which most of the states are activity states. [pic] SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT Hardware specification: Processor: Pentium IV Process speed: 1.6 GHz Memory: 512MB Hard drive: 80 Keyboard:107keys Mouse :Microsoft Software specification: Operating system:Microsoft windows 2000,windows XP Development:Microsoft visual studio Front End:Visual basic6.0 Back End:oracle PROBLEM DESCROPTION The project HOSTEL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM has been developed to reduce manual effort and making things faster and efficient. REQUIREMENT ANALYSIS 6.1.USE CASE DIAGRAM: Use case diagram is a diagram that shows the interaction between user and system to capture the user’s goals. CLASS DIAGRAM: Class diagram is a collection of static elements such as classes and their relationships connected as a graph to each other. DESIGN 7.1. Sequence Diagram: Sequence diagram shows an interaction arranged in a time sequence . it is an alternate way to understand the overall flow of the control of the system program. 7.2. State Diagram: State diagram are a familiar technique to describe the behaviour of a system. They describe all of the possible states that a particular object can get into and hoe the objects state changes as a result of events that reach the object. 7.3. ACTIVITY DIAGRAMS:

The University Of California And The State Constitution Of...

The University of California was set up in 1868, considered out of a fantasy in the State Constitution of a school that would contribute a great deal more than California s gold to the greatness and fulfillment of impelling periods. From a social occasion of academic pioneers in 1868 to the Free Speech Movement in 1964, Berkeley is a spot where the brightest identities from over the globe get together to explore, make request and improve the world. Berkeley staff, graduated class, and authorities have won 72 Nobel Prizes (numbering 30 graduated class Nobel laureates), 9 Wolf Prizes, 13 Fields Medals (tallying 3 graduated class medalists), 22 Turing Awards, 45 MacArthur Fellowships,[17] 20 Academy Awards, 14 Pulitzer Prizes[18] and 105 Olympic gold enhancements (47 silver and 33 bronze).[19] To date, close by Berkeley Lab, UC Berkeley analysts and researchers have discovered 16 compound segments of the infrequent table (californium, seaborgium, berkelium, einsteinium, fermium, lawrencium, etc.) – more than some other school in the world.[20][21] Lawrence Livermore Lab also found or help establish six engineered parts (113 to 118).[22][23] Berkeley is a setting up individual from the Association of American Universities and continues having high research activity with $730.7 million in inventive work utilizes as a part of the fiscal year completing June 30, 2014. 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